Papuk massif has always been a significant borderline in local and regional proportions throughout human history. Not only it served as a natural dividing line, it was also the psychological one in the minds of the people who inhabited and visited it over time. It was also a political boundary between the various administrative state units.
Some scholars place Mons Claudius, recorded in Pliny’s records from antiquity, on the exact site of present-day Papuk and consider it a borderline between the tribes of Skordisk and Taurisk.
In medieval and early medieval documents Papuk was referred to by different names. In the local context, its inhabitants and the institutions that organized administrative affairs there, in the oldest preserved documents refer to it by the Hungarian version of the Slavic word Sljeme, Szelemen. That word characterized the highest part of some elevation, the ridge.
The next name found in the historical sources referring to the area of present-day Papuk was of wider local significance, Pozega or Pozega Mount, or in the Latin version Mons Posega or Mons Poseganus. In this way, it was not only addressed by the population of the Požega Valley, who could otherwise be said to have made their claim on it, but also royal officials and the inhabitants of its northern side, that is, those who inhabited the Podravina area. Thus, in the document of the Pécs Chapter from 1294, we come across the Hungarian version of the name, Posogahouos, that is, the Snowy mountain of Požega.
In contrast, Ottoman sources recorded it as Orahovica Mountain or Orahovačka Mountain, no matter whether they were written on its southern or northern slopes.
The name the largest Slavonian mountain bears today is very old and it is associated primarily with the hydronym, rivulus Papugh. The stream of this name was first mentioned in 1232 in a single document, and it flowed through the western part of the mountain. The surrounding area was named after the stream, then the highest mountain peak, and finally the entire mountain.
There is a large number of archeological sites and monuments of cultural and historical heritage in the Park, which indicate the continuity of settlement of this area since the early Stone Age (Neolithic). The natural wealth of basic resources such as water, wood and stone provided favorable living conditions, while the hilly area provided shelter and food.
The first open-air settlements were confirmed as early as the Stone Age – the Neolithic, by numerous findings of ironed stone tools and hand-made pottery of the Sopot and Starčevo cultures (5500-3500 BC). Archaeological reports include, among others, the ceramic findings of Linear pottery culture (the Linear Band Ware) which implies the Korenovo culture of the Linear pottery complex, which originated on the foundations of the late Starčevo culture.
During the Copper Age, or Chalcolithic (3500 – 2200 BC), several settlements were formed. During the Bronze Age (2 300-800 BC) they were shifted to the peaks and higher slopes that provide strategic protection and control of natural paths that had always followed the valleys of the streams. The possibility of visual communication among prehistoric high-altitude settlements and so-called hillforts was confirmed. During the Early Iron Age (ca. 800 to 400 BC), not far from present-day Kaptol, a significant center (on a European scale) of Hallstatt culture developed.
NEOLITIC “SMALL TOWN” ABOVE POTOČANI
Since the prehistoric times, the notable importance of Papuk for the life of humans has been evidenced by traces of human settlement since the early Stone Age, or the Neolithic (7000-3,500 BC). Neolithic cultures were important for the creation of the first permanent settlements near the water, and the settlements themselves were located in plains or elevated positions, such as the settlement of Starčevo culture – Small Town (Mali Grad) above Potočani – in the lower part of the hill. The locality is also recognized as a settlement of Kostolac culture – the copper age culture. It is a classic fortress hilltop settlement, and traces of above-ground houses and other findings of useful objects are evidence of a valuable prehistoric settlement.
One of the indicators of everyday life on the site is the accidental finding of a ceramic weight for a wooden loom. The weights are evidence of the production of fabric on wooden vertical looms. In particular, they were used to stretch the thread so that the fabric was uniformly made.
TURBULENT METAL AGE
The Copper Age brought about the first turbulent period in the sedentary lifestyle of Neolithic cultures. Copper-age cultures were based on the use of stone, but also on the increasing use of metals in the manufacture of tools, weapons and jewellery. During the Copper Age (3,500-2,200 BC), several settlements emerged on Papuk, choosing the slopes of Papuk for its location.
During the Bronze Age (2 300 – 800 BC), settlements were fortified and moved to higher slopes, which represented a more favorable strategic position, defense of settlements, but also the control of the routes. Roads passed through the valleys of watercourses, including the Požega Valley. Due to their elevation, the settlements were able to easily control these routes and communicate with each other visually.
The Bronze Age is a period of development of metallurgy – the finding of a stone mold (moulding) for the manufacture of weapons (ax or chisel) inside the Bronze Age fortress in Pliš. The possibility that this is a mold for making metal tools or weapons indicates metallurgical activity in Papuk.
PAPUK PEAK
At 953 meters above sea level, there is a site known as Papuk Peak, the second highest peak of Papuk. It is less known that at the same location there is an archeological site – a settlement of the Late Bronze Age. It is in a prominent position, shaped like a hill fort similar to other late Bronze Age sites (“Mali Papuk” above Gornji Vrhovci and Pliš above Velika) with which the settlement at the top of Papuk could have had good communication. Due to the limited space, the settlement was probably smaller in size and possibly seasonally occupied. The ceramic findings indicate typical late Bronze Age pottery, and can be compared with the pottery from the settlements in northern Croatia, Bosnia and Transdanubia.
VUČEDOL CULTURE ON PAPUK
It is a well-known fact that the origin of the Vučedol culture is in eastern Slavonia and Srijem (around 3000 – 2450 BC). It is less known that traces of this interesting Bronze Age culture were found on the slopes of Papuk – at the sites of Vlastelinski Vinograd and Mihalje near Kutjevo, Gradina above Mitrovac, Kozjak near Vetovo, Baščica near Lukač, Stari grad above Velika, and in Potočani.
IRON AGE WARRIORS OF KAPTOL
During the Early Iron Age (ca. 800 to 400 BC), near present-day Kaptol, a significant princely center (in European terms) of Hallstatt culture developed. It is a complex of localities best known for the rich findings of princes’ cremation graves under tumuli. After the exploration of the necropolis found in the archeological zone Kaptol-Čemernica from 1965 to 1975, the European significance of the site was determined and it gave the name to the whole cultural group of the Early Iron Age. The Kaptol-Gradci archaeological zone is a settlement with findings of the Hallstat and La Téne cultures and the necropolis of tumulus. About 25 tumuli were found under the settlement, and so far 17 tumuli have been explored. The site has been systematically investigated by the Center for Prehistoric Research since 2000.
The rich findings from the tumuli consist of horse and warrior gear and arms and defense weapons such as the Greek-Illyrian and Corinthian helmets, which represent the northernmost findings of this type of helmet in Europe. The Iron Age Society of Kaptol area was well represented by the findings of pottery – urns and other sets of utensils of unique shapes, some of which are decorated with zoomorphic decorative protomes. Fine ceramic pots were coated with graphite or it was used as part of a mixture for making pots, which is evidence for the exploitation of another Papuk resource. The Papuk graffiti mine was used until the mid-20th century, and it clearly represented an important foundation for the power and wealth of the Kaptol warriors during the Iron Age.
The Romans conquered the area bounded by the Sava, Drava and Danube rivers during the reign of Emperor Augustus in the last decades of the 1st century BC and in the 1st century AD. The newly-conquered province was called Pannonia, and the Romans brought significant changes in the organization of administration, economic development and settlement formation. Papuk and its surroundings were part of the southern part of the Pannonian province, and from the 1st to the 4th century numerous settlements and farms were built in this area, as evidenced by accidental findings. Random Roman findings in Biskupci, Toranj and Draga provide evidence on the unknown but rich ancient life on the southern slopes of Papuk. A large amount of Roman bronze coins was found during the excavation of the swimming pools in Velika, while Roman building materials were also discovered during archaeological excavations at the Velika Fort, as well as in the Old Town of Kaptol. In the area of Vetovo there are traces of an ancient building with a large amount of building material, fragments of ceramics, amber beads and bronze needles as well as a tombstone from the 2nd or 3rd century. All supposed settlements were connected by the roads connected to the main routes – through Podravina, roads Poetovio (Ptuj) – Mursa (Osijek) and through Posavina, roads Siscia (Sisak) – Marsunia (Slavonski Brod) – Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica).
ROMAN VILLAS RUSTICAS ON PAPUK
South of Radovanačko Hill in the archeological zone of Štivanica-Zastranica, traces of Roman building materials – stone, brick and marble – indicate there was an ancient settlement. Larger ancient settlement can be found at the locations of Kamenjak, Kruzi and Lučica with a large amount of ancient construction materials. Experimental archaeological excavations were carried out at the site in Kruzi in 1976, when the remains of a building, probably a villa rustica were discovered. The settlement dates back to the 4th century, which was confirmed by the copper coins of Constantine and Constantine II. In this large archeological complex, the existence of a Roman road from north to south leading from the settlement to the necropolis was also established. As early as 1922, Roman tombs were discovered on Radovanačko Hill. The aforementioned necropolis of a large Roman settlement probably extended to Velika, where Roman tombs with findings of money, glass bottles, ceramic pots and buckles were also discovered in the 1980s.
MEDIEVAL FORTRESSES
“Papuk’s conical tip stands almost in the middle of Slavonia, keeping a guard between two silver dogs, the Sava and the Drava. The ruins of the old fortifications and towers along the northern and southern slopes of Papuk indicate that the interesting mountain location of Papuk also had its strategic significance. ”
(JULIJE KEMPF “On Papuk”, the Croatian Mountaineer 1901/3)
The importance of the area of Papuk, especially at a time of approaching Ottoman threat, was evidenced by a large number of medieval fortresses, most of which date from the 13th century. Near Orahovica there is the old town of Ružica, a valuable specimen of Gothic and Renaissance art in this part of Croatia. In the vicinity of Ružica, there are the remains of the Old Town, and above the village of Slatinski Drenovac, there are the ruins of the old town of Klak. Near the village of Kamenski Vučjak, there is the fortified town of Kamengrad, in Voćin, the old town of Voćin, north of Velika, there are the ruins of the old Velički town. Nearby there are also the poorly preserved Stražeman town and the Pogana fortress near the village of Doljanovci. All these medieval cities are within the boundaries of the Nature Park or in its border area.
In addition to the fortifications in the Park area and its border area, there are many other valuable monuments of cultural and historical heritage: the castle in Kaptol, the Cistercian abbey of St. Mary in Kutjevo, the monastery of St. Nikola near Orahovica, the churches of St. Michael in Stražeman, St. Augustine in Velika, St. Peter and Paul in Kaptol, the Holy Cross in Orahovica, St. George in Slatinski Drenovac and the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Voćin.
RUZICA – FORTRESS, TOWN, CASTLE
Near Orahovica, above the village of Duzluk, on the slopes of Krndija, which descend towards the plain to the north, rise the ruins of a huge ancient town: the remains of towers, arches, parapets, loopholes and walls that are up to nine meters wide in some places. The town is called Ruzica… (Dubravko Horvatic, “The Grič cannon and other legends from our region”)
The medieval fortress Ružica, one of the largest medieval fortification complexes in Croatia, is located 2.5 km northwest of Orahovica. Located between the northern slopes of Papuk and Krndija, south of the village of Duzluk, this 8000 m2 fort occupies a ridge at 378 m above sea level, accessible only from the south.
Orahovica was mentioned for the first time in the document of King Andrew II. from 1228, which acknowledged the estate of “nobilium de Raholch.” It is assumed that today’s name of Ružica and Orahovica is derived from this form of the name of a medieval estate. The town of Ružica reached its peak and full splendor at the time of the Viceroy of Mačva and Duke of Erdelj, Nikola of Ilok († 1477) and his son Lovro of Ilok († 1524), the Viceoy of Mačva and the ”Bosnian Duke”. The Ottomans conquered the fort in 1542 under the leadership of Muratbeg. After the expulsion of the Ottomans in 1685, Ružica was in ruins. The official imperial census of 1702 provides a description of the fort without a rood, which is preserved only above the chapel.
The last conservation and archeological works on the town of Ružica were carried out from 1966 to 1990. Extensive archaeological material from these explorations includes late Gothic and Renaissance architectural stone plastics, metal, ceramic, bone, glass, and tiles. In particular, there are various findings of everyday useful items, various tools, weapons such as arrows and maces, swords and armours, parts of guns, cannon or catapult stone balls, equestrian equipment, padlocks, keys, candlesticks, cutlery, chains and writing accessories. There are also numerous findings of ceramic dishes, from coarse pottery to fine Renaissance painted ceramics imported from Italy, Turkish pottery, majolica and Chinese porcelain.
STRAŽEMAN TOWN
“One step at a time, but for a moment, our eyes caught a sight of strange stones similar to a mound. At first glance, you can see that there used to be a wall. Here are the “sad pictures of the sad theater”, here are the shadows of the former city of Stražeman, which today is called Stražengrad.”
(JULIJE KEMPF “On Papuk”, the Croatian Mountaineer 1901/3)
Fort Stražeman is located about 3 km north of the village of Stražeman, which is referred to as Stražemlje in medieval historical sources. The fort is located on a hill characterized by the toponym City, at 584 m above sea level. In the period between the fall of Pozega and the fall of Kamengrad, between 1537 and 1539, the Ottoman army conquered the Fort Stražeman, although no direct historical information has been preserved.
KAMENGRAD
“On our way back, we visited the vast ruins of Kamengrad, once the property of the Zapolja family. And then along the beautiful road through the coniferous forest to Voćin… No one who visits our mountains will repent! ”
(Gjuro Szabo “To the mountains of flat Slavonia”, the Croatian Mountaineer 1910/8)
The ruins of the medieval fortress Kamengrad are located on Papuk, above Kamenski Vučjak, about 13 km from Voćin. The fort was built in an inaccessible place, at 612 meters above sea level. It is assumed that the first constructors of the fort were the brothers Filip and Lovro, Požega county mayors of the Rad family in the late 13th century. Kamengrad fort changed its owners on several occasions, starting with Nikola Treutal, Peter Cech Levanjsky, Ivan Zapolja, all the way to the Tahy family. After the conquest of the city in 1539, the Ottomans set up their permanent crew there.
VOĆIN OLD TOWN
“There is a good chance that in the 12th century the area of Voćin belonged to the Templars, whom were granted by Croatian Ban Benko a large estate of Vaška with the church of St. Martin in 1199, where they erected their monastery. Later, the Templars relinquished that property to Bishop Stephen of Zagreb (1230) for another estate called Rasek… It may not be an unfounded legend, that the Templars built a church in Voćin and possibly a monastery next to it” (E. Laszowsky 1923).
The fort is located at 300 meters above sea level near the well-known late Gothic church of the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Voćin. The first mention of Voćin dates from the early 13th century under the name Athyna. It is possible that the fortress (” fortified city”, “castrum”) was built above the settlement during the very first generation of the Aba family that owned the fort.
In the second half of the 15th century, Catherine and Euphrosyne of Ilok, daughters of Nikola of Ilok, were listed as owners of the estates of Voćin. The fortress of Voćin was mentioned in the source from 1490 in a treaty between King Vladislav II. Jagelović and Croatian Duke Ivaniš Korvin. At the end of the 15th century, a Franciscan monastery and a church were built at the foot of the fort. This was the period of economic boom in Voćin, when it was regularly referred to as an oppidum, or a market town.
“I make all kinds of glassware in the glass factory: glasses and bottles,
cups and medicine bottles, and in addition I make window glass. My whole production is intended for the domestic market, my goods are bought up largely by many glassmakers and glass merchants, who sell it at annual and monthly fairs …”
(Ivan Gasteiger, owner of a glass factory in Jankovac in a letter to Virovitica County in 1807)
During the 19th century, new businesses were created from peasant manufactories. Glass factories were predominantly established, given the richness of the forests on Papuk and the possibility of burning the potash and finding the quartz needed for the glass production. In the second half of the 19th century, the area of Papuk was known on the European market for the production of first-class glass in the forest glass factories. When one of the energy sources needed to produce glass was exhausted or when glass factories were shut down due to competition, they would be established in other places where there was enough of the necessary supplies for the production. The beech forests of Papuk represented a rich area for glass factories. In order to produce glass, the ash of beech tree is needed, which was obtained by boiling in cauldrons and leaching it, and a potash (potassium carbonate) was formed. Except potash, in the production were used quartz sand and carbonates, i.e. limestone, by baking which quicklime is produced.
The first glass factory opened in 1801 on Jankovac, when a glassmaking contractor Ivan Gasteiger leased the area of present-day Jankovac. Gasteiger was also buried in the Jankovac Cemetery, where his tombstone is still located. Master glassmakers from the Czech Republic, Germany, Austria and Hungary built a settlement, master workshops, warehouses, a chapel and a cemetery in Jankovac. After some time the Jankovac glass factories moved their final production to the village of Slatinski Drenovac, from where it was easier to distribute the glass. The production was finally shut down in 1841.
The glass factory of Jankovac was replaced by the glass factory of a merchant from Vienna, Joseph Lobmeyer at Zvečevo, which opened in 1842. This glass factory offered new, more luxurious products, such as blown glass oil lamps and cylindrical cups with village life motifs and owners’ monograms, as well as crystal glasses and chandeliers. The glass factory exhibited its products at the Zagreb Economic Exhibition in 1873 and at international exhibitions in Vienna, Philadelphia and Trieste.
Between 1868 and 1875, the glass factory of an entrepreneur named Trnika operated in Duboka. The glass factory at Zvečevo represented serious competition to a small glass factory with about forty workers. However, the production of colored glass excelled in the market.
In the second half of the 19th century, the products of glass factories on Papuk could satisfy domestic needs. However, in the early 20th century, production stagnated and was finally shut down
All in all, glass produced at Zvečevo (and other Slavonian glass factories) could satisfy domestic needs in the second half of the 19th century. The beginning of the new century brought stagnation and finally shutdown of the production that could no longer compete with foreign glass factories. Their cheaper and therefore more affordable glass started to dominate the market.
